Pre-Christian Era
The
historic connection between the Armenian people and the Holy
Land (or Palestine) goes back to the days of Assyria and
Babylon before the advent of Jesus Christ. At one time,
Armenia and Palestine. were part of the same empire.
According to recorded history, the Armenian King Tigran II
(95 to 55 B.C.)The Great "King of Kings," conquered most of
the northern part of the fertile crescent including Syria
and for a short time, extended his political influence over
Palestine which at the time was ruled by the Jewish
Hasmonean kings.
Early Roman Era
There is
recorded evidence that during the Roman era ( 55 B.C. to
A.D. 323) Armenian traders, artisans, Legionaries and
government administrators were recruited by the Romans to
settle in what they called Palestina. After the total
destruction of Jerusalem in A.D.70 by the Roman general
Titus and the expulsion of all Jews from the city and its
surroundings, a small number of Armenians were part of the
remaining non-Jewish population living in the immediate
vicinity of Jerusalem which was in total ruins for more than
a decade.
Early Christian Communities in The
Holy Land
During
its early years Christianity was essentially an underground
movement whose followers were persecuted by the suspicious
Romans who believed that the early Christians were members
of another Jewish sect since Jesus himself and most of the
apostles, disciples and followers were of Jewish origin. By
A.D.100 Christianity had spread throughout Asia Minor
including Armenia where the disciples Thaddeus and
Bartholomew separately arrived and spread the words of the
Gospel among a small community of Jews, and converted some
influential members of the Armenian nobility as well. The
early Christians in Armenia were persecuted and martyred
like their brothers and sisters in the Roman Empire.
Therefore, they sought support and guidance from like-minded
people in Greek cities such as Antioch, Ceasaria, Jerusalem
and Alexandria. Although the original Christians were
primarily Jews, by the beginning of the second century
non-Jewish (gentile) Christians became a majority and
dominated the hierarchy of the church. This fact was
exacerbated by the continued persecution by the Roman
emperors of non-Christian as well as Christian Jews who were
not permitted to reside inside the walls of Jerusalem.
Christians were not permitted to build their own places of
worship inside the city. Instead, they held clandestine
meetings in existing buildings. One of these buildings was
the Upper Room, a house on Mount Sion located outside the
city walls, which they liked to call "Mother of the
churches." They also owned a throne which they believed
belonged to St. James, the brother of Jesus, considered
being the "First Bishop of Jerusalem." The current St. James
Cathedral is named after him and it is believed that his
head is housed in its main sanctuary. Here, the Armenian
presence cannot be disputed since the current Armenian
Quarter is acknowledged to include the site of the original
Mount Zion.
In
A.D. 135, Emperor Hadrian crushed the last Jewish rebellion
and systematically wiped out the entire Jewish population of
Jerusalem and its surroundings. He proclaimed that Jews will
no longer be permitted to live in Jerusalem which again, was
in total ruin. At the same time he renamed the city "Aelia
Capitolina," a name officially used by the Romans until
A.D.326. By the end of the third century very few people
remembered the original name of the city.
There
is no clear documentary evidence that Armenians lived in
Jerusalem and its surroundings during the second and third
centuries. The only viable testimony is recorded by
Christian historian Eusebius (260-339) who in A.D. 313 was
installed Bishop of Ceasaria. Eusebius, universally
acknowledged as the father of ecclesiastical history, writes
about written contacts between Bishop Dyonesius of
Alexandria and Moushegh, Bishop of Armenia in 254. It is
believed that this type of communication could have only
been done through the Armenians in Jerusalem. Although there
is no tangible historical evidence that Jerusalem was a
center of Christian pilgrimage in the second and third
centuries, and few sites were identified as holy
sanctuaries, documents in the archives of the St. James
Monastery in Jerusalem speak of a Bishop Macarius of
Jerusalem presiding over the discovery of holy sites and the
construction of edifices as mentioned in communications with
bishops in Armenia between 325 and 335.
It
must be noted here that up to the beginning of the fifth
century, there was no denominational difference among the
followers of Christ. The prominent languages in the church
were Greek, Syriac or Aramaic and the church hierarchy was
invested in the bishops of various cities without any regard
to nationality or ethnicity. Hence, the scant number of the
Christian Church sanctuaries in the Holy Places was used by
all Christians. They shared the multiracial monastic
facilities, and in due time they founded a number of private
monasteries and churches throughout the Holy Land. In
essence, as an underground organization the Church was
multinational, international and ecumenical.
Beginning of Formal Christian Era
Two
important events at the beginning of the fourth century
changed the nature and dimension of the Christian world:
-
In
303, King Terdat III proclaimed Christianity as the only
official religion of Armenia with the help of St. Gregory
the Illuminator.
-
Constantine I, Emperor of the Roman empire, proclaimed
Christianity in his Edict of Milan in 323, as one of the
accepted religions of his empire, which made it as one of
the official religions along with paganism.
The
primary benefit derived from these two events was that
Christians were no longer persecuted and marginalized. They
were able to move about freely, perform religious services
and practice their religion without fear of persecution. For
the next hundred years Christians lived side by side in
harmony.
The
process for the discovery and construction of Holy sites
began in earnest with the visit of dowager empress Helena,
mother of Constantine. Armenians were active in this
process. Now that Christianity was an accepted religion
Christians began to work in the open without fear of
persecution. The sites of Golgotha, the Nativity of Christ
in Bethlehem, St. Mary's birthplace, what is now known as
The Holy Sepulcher and other important sanctuaries of today
were discovered through the efforts of Queen Helena assisted
by Armenian religious leaders..
The
fourth century also saw the beginning of the great monastic
age in which Armenians have had a crucial historical role.
One of the earliest founders of monasticism in the Holy Land
was Bishop Euthymius (377-473) of Melitene (Malatia). He is
internationally recognized as one of the major pioneers of
monasticism. He is also credited for establishing at least
fifteen monasteries in locations between Masada in the south
and Bethlehem in the north. He was regarded by his
contemporaries as the second Adam. His exemplary life was
thought to have launched a new era for humanity. As a
talented organizer and reformer he set the pattern for
future monastic endeavors by all nations. He authored
regulations and a comprehensive code of living patterns and
conduct for all aspects of monastic life which became the
model for future monastic periods. Soon, monasticism became
the "fad"of the time. Latins. Ethiopians, Persians,
Georgians, and others flocked to the Judean monasteries thus
giving the movement an international flavor and character.
Archives in the St. James convent indicate that many other
illustrious Armenian monks followed, contributing to the
development of the canons, liturgy and customs of the
Armenian Church. It is believed that between the fourth and
eighth centuries Armenians had established more than seventy
monasteries throughout the Holy Land. The monks or hermits
who flocked into the mountains surrounding Jerusalem as well
as the Sinai desert were highly motivated individuals whose
primary goal was to work in the service of God under
primitive and austere living conditions. In their
monasteries the monks planted their own gardens and fruit
trees contributing to the blooming of the area in general.
Monasteries were populated by a minimum of two and a maximum
of 400 monks. Each monastery undertook a project or projects
ranging from handwriting books, copying manuscripts,
creating colorful illustrations, preparing liturgical
procedures and hymns as well as formulating church dogma.
Some undertook the manufacture of goods. Rope-making was a
favorite trade. Some were the predecessors of our modern day
think-tanks where they prepared the guidelines for religious
laws, church services, hymns and theological positions which
affected all Christendom.
Invention of Armenian Alphabet
The
above described endeavors could not have been realized
without the most important event that took place in Armenia
and changed the destiny of the Armenian people: the
invention of the Armenian alphabet and grammar in A.D.405 by
St. Mesrob Mashtotz, encouraged by Catholicos St. Sahag
Bahlavouni. The first undertaking following this miraculous
event was the translation from the original Greek and
Aramaic, of the Old and New testaments of the Bible which
they named "Asdvadzashoonch," meaning, The Breath of God.
Church scholars translated a large number of Christian
writings into Armenian and historians were able to document
national and international events in Armenian. The
development of the Armenian alphabet provided an impetus for
the establishment of monasteries not only in Armenia proper
but throughout the Holy Land where, between the fifth and
eighth centuries, thousands of Armenians made their
pilgrimage to pursue scholarly endeavors: writing
theological works and developing what is currently known as
the Armenian Lectionary which consists of sacred liturgical
services, the calendar of church holidays, the dates for the
commemoration of saints and an inventory of appropriate
hymns. It must be pointed out that Jerusalem played a major
role not only in the formation and evolution of the Armenian
church liturgy and rites in Jerusalem, but it exercised
great influence in the crystallization of Christian rituals
into fixed forms throughout the Armenian world. The
uniqueness of Jerusalem is vested in the fact that to this
day it adheres faithfully to the exact letter of the forms,
customs and traditions established by the scholarly monks
and church leaders of the earlier Christian era.
At
present, the Armenian Patriarchate maintains more than 4000
manuscripts and colorful illustrations carefully stored and
catalogued in an underground vault in St Toros Church
adjacent to the St. James Cathedral. They are vivid and
irrefutable testimony of the legacy passed on over the past
fifteen hundred years by the dedicated and hardworking
monks.
What
is remarkable about the influence of monasticism in the Holy
Land is that many facets of Armenian church liturgy
practiced today originated in Jerusalem. The liturgical
calendar is a remarkable document in that it provides
guidelines and procedures for church services for every day
of the year. This pocket-sized document continues to be
published by the Patriarchate annually. In essence, it is a
compact encyclopedia and a compendium of relevant religious
events, chronological facts and organizational data. It also
provides a schedule for the commemoration of Saints in the
Latin church as well as information on the Islamic calendar.
Mosaic
floors excavated during the second half of the nineteenth
century in and around Jerusalem provide indisputable
evidence of the existence of a great number of Armenian
establishments believed to be constructed in the fifth and
sixth centuries. Most of the finds were mainly on Mount of
Olives on the grounds of the current Russian Convent. These
archeological finds consist of six mosaic floors of
different sizes accidentally uncovered from under the rubble
while digging for the foundation of the Russian monastery.
All six have inscriptions in Armenian letters.
In
1895, another mosaic floor bearing Armenian inscriptions,
was uncovered in the Moslem Musrara Quarter about 200 meters
from Damascus Gate. This intact floor made up of forty
medallions each depicting a bird and arranged in rows of
five, measures about ten by twenty feet. This writer visited
this site in the summer of 1992. An inscription in Armenian
letters reads: For the memory and salvation of all the
Armenians whose names the Lord knows. It is believed to be
the funerary chapel of St. Poleucte, an officer of the
twelfth Roman legion, who along many of his soldiers lies
buried under the floor. The room in which this floor is
located was purchased by the Patriarchate in 1912. It is the
only significant mosaic floor owned by the St. James
Brotherhood. The remainder of the building including the
second floor is still owned by one of two original Moslem
families assigned as the doorkeepers of the Holy Sepulcher.
As
recently as in 1992, while the Israeli Government was
excavating a hill outside the old city of Jerusalem for the
construction of a major boulevard, workers came upon a
mosaic floor containing an inscription in Armenian letters.
After much debate and litigation, it was agreed that the
floor is the property of the Armenian Patriarchate, and in
order not to disturb the relatively large floor it should
remain in place for the time being. Today, it is preserved
in place in a cement chamber under the boulevard.
Concept
of
ONE CHURCH
splintered
During
the first half of the fifth century we see the birth of
sectarianism in the One And Only Church. It was caused by
Christological pronouncements on the part of certain
bishops. Prominent among these was Nestorius, Patriarch of
Constantinople, who believed in the separate and distinct
character of Christ's divine and human natures. In A.D.431,
the Third Ecumenical Council was convened at Ephesus.
Although the council condemned Nestor and his followers as
heretics (called Nestorians), the debate over this
controversy continued for twenty years, while the Christian
Church was divided into two camps for the first time in its
short history. The Armenian church leadership in Etchmiadzin,
being under Persian domination, did not send representatives
to Ephesus., thus was not informed of the decisions made.
Following Ephesus, the banished Nestorians were welcomed by
the Persian rulers as enemies of Byzantium , and by
implication the Armenian Church was erroneously considered
Nestorian since they were under Persian control.
Since
at the time, Armenia was partitioned between the Persians
who occupied the eastern two-third of the country and the
Byzantium emperors who occupied the western one-third , the
Armenian Church was generally left alone in its conduct of
its religious and cultural affairs, holding its own church
councils. After A.D.439, with the ascension of King Hazgerd
II to the Persian throne, the relatively peaceful situation
in Armenia changed dramatically. Hazgerd and his court
wanted to assimilate the Armenians by imposing
Zoroastrianism on all non-Persian people within his empire .
His despotic treatment of the Armenians culminated in the
Battle of Avarair in A.D.451followed by the protracted
Vartanank rebellion and guerilla warfare which lasted until
484 when the Persians were finally defeated.
The
final blow to the unity of the Christian world was struck at
the Council of Calcedon in A.D.451, while at the same time
Armenians were deeply involved in resisting Persian
persecution which in May of that year culminated in the
Battle of Avarair. Again, the Armenian Church was not
represented at the council, and for many years information
about its decisions trickled into Armenia while the country
was immersed in the Vartanank wars.
The
final splintering of the Christian World was the direct
result of certain Christological decisions made at the
Council of Calcedon, which created a serious theological and
ecumenical breach among the Christian leadership practically
dividing them into two opposing camps. The primary point of
contention between those attending the council had to do
with the nature of Christ while revisiting Nestorianism. The
majority faction (consisting of the Bishop of Rome, the
Greek Patriarch of Constantinople and other Byzantine
bishops) decreed that Christ's two natures were not separate
as Nestorius claimed in Ephesus, but that they were united
without confusion, change or division. Hence the term
Dyophysite. The minority faction consisting of the Eastern
churches ( the Coptic, Syrian, Ethiopian and others, led by
the Patriarch of Alexandria, Egypt), contended that Christ
had only one nature, partly divine, partly human. They were
known as Monophysites. Thus, the splintering of the
Christian Church had begun in earnest. For many years
thereafter religious leaders, realizing the seriousness of
the chasm, attempted to find ways to reconcile the
dissenting groups. Several councils were held and edicts
issued to modify as well as clarify the previous wording.
They were not successful.
Over
the next thirty years the decisions of Calcedon and its
variations gradually arrived in Armenia in a variety of
versions. Finally, when the Persian threat had subsided, the
Armenian bishops convened in Vagharshabat in A.D.491. They
rejected the decisions at Calcedon. At a subsequent
convocation in A.D.506, they also rejected the Monophysite
label placed upon them by the Roman and Greek churches.
Essentially, the Armenian church is not Monophysite; but,
according to church experts it comes close to it. The
Armenian Church has followed its own unique interpretation
regarding the nature of Christ. It views the two natures as
one and indivisible. It believes in the divinity of Christ
and by recognizing the humanity it does not emphasize it.
The
wide breach created by the Council of Calcedon at first did
not seriously affect the religious harmony among the
homogeneous Christian communities in the Holy Land and
Jerusalem. For about a century thereafter, all Christians
remained under the spiritual authority of one patriarch
regardless of his ethnic origin. They maintained the Holy
Places and worshiped in common with harmony while the Greek
Patriarchs in Constantinople were exerting their authority
upon other churches in Asia Minor, and the Patriarch of Rome
claimed supremacy over all Christians since the emperors
ruled from Rome. There was much quibbling and strife among
the "Faithful".
The
harmonious relationship among the Christians in Jerusalem
ended with the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527-565 ), an
avowed dyophysite, who proclaimed that all Christians
residing in the Roman empire must become dyophysites and
began persecuting all those who did not comply. Many
monophysite clergy abandoned their monasteries in Jerusalem
and sought refuge in other inaccessible regions of the Holy
Land and in neighboring countries. Those capable of
remaining in the Holy Land established their own distinct
episcopal hierarchy independent of the Calcedonian Greek
Patriarch. With the encouragement of the Catholicoi in
Etchmiadzin, the Armenians in Jerusalem installed their own
independent bishopric and established a hierarchy having
authority over the Eastern monophysite communities (Jacobites,
Syrian, Coptic and Abyssinian), a practice essentially in
effect in Jerusalem to this day. On the other hand, the
Greek Patriarch exercised his authority over the dyophysites,
all Christians in the Roman empire regardless of nationality
or language. There was no Latin patriarch in Jerusalem at
the time.
The
actual extent of Armenian religious establishments in he
Holy Land during the Byzantine period is not easily
determined. A document in the archives of the St James
Monastery attributed to a seventh century monk, Anastas
Vartabed, contains a list of seventy monasteries and
churches owned by the Armenians at the time in and around
Jerusalem. The document asserts that a number of monasteries
confiscated by the Greek Church during the dyophysite
persecutions were eventually returned after some Armenian
princes paid large sums of money to Emperor Justinian I.
Soon after, when the Byzantine authorities in Jerusalem
warned the monophysites, including the Armenians, that
unless they adhered to the Calcedonian doctrine they would
not be allowed to live in Jerusalem, it is said that some
five hundred monks were advised by Catholicos Hovhannes II
(557-574 ), to abandon their monasteries rather than submit
to the threats of the Greeks and compromise their core
beliefs. Many monks are said to have left for the city of
Ceasaria on the coast of Palestine and to Cairo , Egypt ,
where large Armenian communities existed at the time.
However, some Armenian clergy somehow remained in Jerusalem
to maintain and protect the Holy Sites and institutions in
spite of heavy-handed harassment by the Greeks who were
eager to lay their hands on the Armenian properties. Thus,
in the face of constant Byzantine coercion Armenians held on
until after the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in A.D.614 and
the subsequent Arab conquest in A.D. 638.
In
retrospect, the Council of Calcedon proved to be a crucial
milestone and a highly significant watershed in the history
of Christianity. It demonstrated the human shortcomings of
the people who preached the message of love and peace
proclaimed by the Son of God. Yet in practice they
germinated the seeds of dissension and intolerance. The
legacy of Calcedon can be characterized by a spirit of
distrust and a deep chasm along Christological, ethnic and
racial lines resulting in the eventual fragmentation of the
Christian world and the establishment of a multitude of
denominations, sects, and constantly warring religious
groupings well into the twentieth century where brother
still kills brother in the name of God.
As to
the Armenian Church, by affirming both a unique doctrinal
position and their apostolic traditions, the Armenians
maintained their National Church and distinct identity.
Pressures from Byzantium, and in later years by the Latin
Church, over the past fifteen hundred years has not shaken
the Armenian people from their deep-rooted faith. By the
start of the sixth century the Armenian Church made a clean
break from the dominance of the Byzantine Church.
In
A.D.551, it adopted its own calendar and in A.D.554, at the
second Council of Dvin, a complete break from Constantinople
was officially proclaimed. By A.D.609, an independent
National Armenian Church was declared, which meant that the
Bishop of Jerusalem among others, became directly
responsible to the Catholicos.
After
the wide-spread destruction of Jerusalem by the invading
army of the Persian king Khosrov II in A.D.614, Armenians
took an active part in the reconstruction of the Holy sites.
Preserved correspondence between Patriarch Modestus of
Jerusalem and Catholicos Komidas of Armenia show the extent
and importance of their cooperation.
Muslim Arab Era
The
rule of Byzantine (Roman) emperors ended when the army of
Arab Caliph Omar Ibn-El- Khattab (634-644) entered Jerusalem
in February 638. Thus began the first phase in the era of
Muslim rule lasting until July 15,1099, when the Crusaders
entered Jerusalem under the command of Godfrey De Bouillon.
There
is a historical irony in that the Muslim conquest of
Palestine which the Arabs called "Falastin", also gave
impetus to the growth of the Armenian presence in the Holy
Land. Under the rule of the Roman emperors the Armenian
church was relegated to a secondary position behind the
Greek church and was represented by a small bishopric while
the Greeks had a Patriarch. However, the situation changed
with the arrival of Caliph Omar who seemed to have been well
disposed toward the Armenians. Having fought the Byzantine
emperors, he distrusted the Greeks, and it seemed to him
that he could rely on the loyalty of the Armenians.
The
first Armenian Patriarch on record is Bishop Abraham I
(638-660). He was elevated to the position of Patriarch
under a charter issued by Caliph Omar in A.D.640. Since then
there have been uninterrupted successive regimes of
patriarchs, suffragans and lay custodians to this day. The
current Patriarch is His Beatitude Archbishop Torkom
Manoogian who ascended the holy throne in September 1990.
Throughout three successive Arab dynasties, the Umayiad
(638-749), the Abbasid (749-970) and the Fatimid (971-1099)
spanning over 400 years, Armenians enjoyed with very few
exceptions, the goodwill of several Caliphs. There is ample
historical evidence through both Arab and Armenian as well
as European chroniclers, proving that Arab rulers enjoyed
the trust and loyalty of the Armenians not only in
Jerusalem, but also in Egypt during the Fatimid dynasty.
Caliph
Omar in his charter also enumerated the rights and
privileges of the Armenian Patriarchate over certain Holy
Places thus guaranteeing the integrity and safety of the
properties and lives of the Armenians in Jerusalem .
Consequently, each successive dynasty recognized and
reaffirmed this right.
One
significant aspect of the Arab conquest of Palestine is that
for the first time in the history of the country an invading
army entered Jerusalem peacefully. Not a single life was
lost or any property forcibly taken by the Islamic soldiers.
Caliph Omar, one of the most austere and passionate
Companions of the Prophet Muhammad, continued to live as
simply as Muhammad had done. In spite of the riches
conquered by his armies he lived a Spartan life and insisted
that his officers do the same. He had more compassion than
any previous conqueror and true to the Prophet's belief, he
considered Jerusalem a revered and holy city. The Arabs
continued to call the city Ilya (Aelia) or Bayt al-Maqdes (
house of the holy) and in later years as Al-Quds (The holy
place).
As a
result of the tolerant nature of the Islamic religion,
Armenians developed close relationships in several regions
of the Arab empire. It is said that because of their
apolitical nature Armenians got along with the Arab rulers.
During the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt they enjoyed special
status not only in Egypt but in Jerusalem as well. Many high
ranking officials in the military and the government were
known to be of Armenian descent. History also records two
Abassid Caliphs whose mothers were Armenian including
several Grand Viziers and generals.
Armenians settled in Egypt early in the Roman era. However,
their numbers increased appreciably during the Fatimid rule.
It is said that during this period the Armenian population
in Egypt numbered more than 30,000 . It is believed that
this was due to the fact that Armenians who were in key
positions of leadership encouraged their countrymen to
settle in countries ruled by the Fatimid Caliphs. This fact
obviously enhanced the position of Armenians in the Holy
Land. There is tangible evidence that the Armenian community
had begun to congregate around the original site of the St.
James Church and several churches and monasteries in the
immediate vicinity on Mount Zion, which constituted the core
of the Armenian Quarter as we know it today.
Crusader Period
The
Crusader period (1099-1187) is also considered an era in
which Armenians enjoyed growth, prosperity and fair
treatment. Several factors contributed to this situation:
1)
Even though at first the Crusader hordes came in as
conquerors pillaging and ransacking cities and committing
many misdeeds and atrocities in Cilicia or Lesser Armenia,
their leaders soon realized that they would benefit more by
creating alliances with the prevailing Armenian kings and
princes in the region. On the other hand, the Armenian
princes welcomed this unruly invasion of more than 100,000
soldiers who assisted them in defeating and expelling the
Seljuk Turks in the east. They agreed to the establishment
of Norman and Frankish princedoms and Kingdoms in the area
as a buffer. Thus crusaders became the Lords of Antioch and
Edessa where the inhabitants were mainly Armenian.
2)
Wherever the Crusaders went, they found influential Armenian
allies in the population of the cities. Armenians were found
in all major cities along the Mediterranean coast a well as
in the main cities of Palestine: Jerusalem, Acre, Ceasarea,
Gaza, Kerak, Nablus and surrounding areas.
3)
Intermarriage was common between the Frankish nobility and
the Armenian Royal Houses of Cilicia. It was a means of
guaranteeing binding alliances between the parties .For
example: Queen Arda, daughter of Baron Toros of Cilicia, was
the wife of Baldwin of Boulogne, prince of Edessa, who
became King Baldwin I of Jerusalem after the untimely death
of his brother Godfrey of Bouillon of typhoid fever in July
1100. Morphia, daughter of Gabriel, Governor of Melitene (Malatia),
was married to King Baldwin II of Jerusalem . Upon the death
of Baldwin II in 1131, his daughter Melisend succeeded him
as Queen along with her husband Fulk, Count of Anjou.
In the
spring of 1099 the Crusader armies arrived outside the walls
of Jerusalem preceded by their reputation as ruthless
warriors. Their cruelty and ruthlessness was so bad even
Christians, including the Greek Patriarch, fled the city. It
is said that the Armenian Patriarch, Simeon (1090-1109), did
not think it necessary to leave the city until the actual
siege began. The Crusaders laid siege to the city and since
they did not have the basic knowledge and the means to scale
the walls of a highly defended city as Jerusalem, they
remained outside the walls of the city for several months,
until a fleet of ships arriving in Jaffa from Genoa, Italy,
brought in the necessary materials. They also dismantled
their ships using ropes , hooks and the masts to build two
wooden towers which they were able to wheel up to the walls-
a device totally unfamiliar to the defending Muslims.
On
July 15, a soldier in Godfrey's command managed to penetrate
into a tower of the city wall through one of these wooden
towers. He was followed by the rest of the soldiers who
entered the city in sufficient numbers to not only overwhelm
the Arab and Jewish defenders; but for three days they
killed every Saracen and Turk they found in the city. It is
said that more than 30,000 people, including women and
children were put to the sword. They pillaged the city and
cold-bloodedly appropriated houses as they pleased without
any distinction between them . It is said, the streets were
literally filled with blood of their enemies. Those Muslims
and Jews they did not kill were chased out of the city. By
the time peace and normalcy resumed in Jerusalem out of a
population of 100,000 only a few hundred remained.
For
some time the city was in shambles until Baldwin arrived in
the Holy City on the ninth of November 1100. He was welcomed
with enthusiasm and joy not only by the remaining Crusaders
but by the local Christians including the Armenians, Greeks,
Assyrians, who waited for him outside the walls of the city.
Baldwin realized that if his countrymen had to survive in
the Middle East he had to trust the local Christians in
particular the Armenians since his wife was Armenian. He
proceeded to gain the trust and confidence of the
Christians.
On
November 11, 1100, Baldwin was crowned "King of the Latins"
in the Nativity Church in Bethlehem. During his reign many
Armenians flocked into Jerusalem from Antioch, Edessa,
Tarsus, Cilicia and Cappadocia; some establishing permanent
residence . Until 1187, Armenians thrived in the Holy Land
and were given preference . Special laws were enacted
granting Armenians and other Christians trade privileges,
tax exemptions and other incentives to promote their
settlement in Jerusalem. Ancient maps depicting the layout
of the walled city of Jerusalem in Crusader times show the
existence of an Armenian compound at its southwest corner.
Although relatively small in number, Armenians seemed to be
well established in the Holy Places.
In
historical perspective the Crusader era was relatively
short-lived. (it lasted about 88 years). However, the
Frankish rulers left a solid legacy that has made its mark
on Jerusalem to this day. The fanatically religious and
intolerant invaders, in time, became civilized secular
leaders who rebuilt the city and introduced a Western flavor
to the society, that has lasted to this day. Their
architectural accomplishments are living testimony to their
sense of decorum. For example, the current edifice of the
Holy Sepulcher was rebuilt during this era and remains today
as proud monument of religious art and beauty. The most
enduring accomplishment of this period was the construction
of the large Armenian cathedral of St James consisting of a
complex of sanctuaries which, besides the relics of the
apostles James the Great and James the Younger, included the
chapels containing the tombs of St Makar and St. Minas.
Ayyubid Period
In
1174, a Kurdish general by the name of Yusuf Ibn Ayyub
vanquished the Shiite Fatimid sultan of Egypt and began
conquering most of the Middle East and by 1187 he entered
Palestine from the north. He defeated Guy De Lucignan, then
King of Jerusalem, in July of that year effectively ending
Christian rule in Palestine. Yusuf is usually known in the
West as Saladin, an abbreviation of his title Salah ad-Din (
"The Righteousness of the faith"). A charismatic man, he was
known for his kindliness and piety as well as tolerance
toward non-Islamic religions.
On
October 2, 1187, Saladin entered Jerusalem. It was the day
Muslims celebrate The Prophet's Night Journey before he went
to heaven. For the second time in the history of Jerusalem,
not a single Christian was killed or molested. The Frankish
Barons and the rich simply paid ransom and left the city.
Although the entire population was considered prisoner,
Saladin set them free to go about their business. Ironically
Christian chroniclers depict Saladin as a man of charity who
behaved more Christian than the Crusaders. It is said that
Saladin had a very positive attitude toward Armenians. He is
considered the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. As such he
set the tone for future Sultans in their treatment of
Christians and in particular the Armenians, with respect and
dignity.
As an
avowed enemy of the Latins and ever suspicious of the
Greeks, Saladin found it expedient to endow the Armenians of
the Holy Land with greater privileges. The Armenian
Patriarch Abraham III (1180-1191) and his leading clerical
associates are said to have hastened to pledge their loyalty
to the sultan and to pay the prescribed poll taxes. Unlike
other Christians, the Armenian population of the city,
comprising some five hundred monks and one thousand
families, were neither expelled nor taken as slaves by the
lieutenants of the Sultan. Instead, Saladin granted the
Armenian Patriarch a charter guaranteeing the security of
all Armenians, the integrity of their possessions, the
prerogative of keeping their Holy Places and the freedom to
worship throughout his entire domain.
The
Ayyubid period was relatively less turbulent until the
invasion of the Karizmian Turks in 1244. There was
widespread destruction and loss of life. The city was sacked
and destroyed and the population expelled. The Holy Roman
Emperors continued sending Crusader expeditions to Jerusalem
but to no avail. They were either defeated or disintegrated
before they arrived at their destination. It took three
years (1096-1099) for the first Crusader to arrive at the
gates of Jerusalem. The seventh and last crusade was headed
by King Louis IX of France. Not only the venture was an
abject failure, he and his entire army was taken prisoner in
Egypt in 1250, and remained captive for a few months until
they were ransomed, by the Memluk general, al-Zahir Baybars
who in 1251, led a rebellion against Sultan Turan Shah, the
last Ayyubid sultan.
Memluk Period
Sultan
Al-Zahir Baybars (1260-1276) is considered the founder of
the Memluk dynasty. The Memluks (or Mamaliks ) were not
Arab. They were a mixture of Eurasian tribes mostly of
turkish
origin from the steppes of central Asia. It is said
that they were sold as slaves to an Egyptian sultan by
Jinghis Khan.( In Arabic the word Mamluk or Mamalik means
"possessed", "slave"or "serf"). They converted to Islam and
being naturally good horsemen, they became an elite cavalry
force in the Muslim army.
While
occupied in conquering the rest of the Middle Eastern
kingdoms including Cilicia, the Memluks were not in a hurry
to capture Jerusalem since they did not consider it a
strategic city and upon entering it they did not bother to
reinforce its walls. However, until the end of their dynasty
in 1513 (over 250 years), historical evidence shows that
they did not persecute the Christians in Jerusalem and
because of the existence of an Armenian colony in Egypt they
looked favorably toward the Armenians.
Unfortunately, during this period considerable manipulation,
bribery and intrigue on the part of the Christian
denominations for the possessive rights of the Holy places
were prevalent. Arbitrary decisions taken by certain Memluk
rulers were motivated by bribery, favoritism and sheer whim.
For instance, the Georgian church whose members had close
family ties with the Memluks, became the main beneficiaries,
usurping properties and holy places owned by other
Christians including the Armenians, by simply bribing the
sultan of the day.
One
very important negative pattern characterizing this period
which continued throughout the subsequent ottoman
rule and
through our time, is the emergence of clear divisions within
the Christian communities in the Holy Land resulting in
three principal and adversary communities: Greek, Armenian
and Latin. They eventually became the principal custodians
and uneasy partners of the Holy Places. In the process,
greed, intrigue and political machinations were the norm of
the day. The Latins and the Greeks constantly conspired to
usurp the rights of the Armenians. At the end, the Greek
Orthodox Church became the greatest beneficiary of the
infighting.
Being
part of a relatively small nation and without the backing of
a strong country, Armenians had the added burden of
defending their rights against the larger and more
influential churches backed by the strength of the Latin and
Greek governments in the West. Without a doubt, the
leadership and statesmanship of the Armenian Patriarchs had
a great deal to do with the survival of the Armenian
presence in Palestine coupled with the fact that pilgrimage
to the Holy Places continued on by Armenians living in many
countries of the Middle East and elsewhere.. Some chose to
settle there and help the church to built income properties
and provide support and protection.
One
bright period in the Memluk era was the ascendance to the
Memluk throne of Sultan Al-Zahir Chaqmaq (1438-1453) who,
because of his dislike of the Crusaders, was fiercely
intolerant toward the Latins . He closed their churches and
did not allow them to rebuild their sanctuaries. However,
for some unexplained reason he was positively disposed
toward the Armenians whom he favored. One possible reason is
that even though they were closely involved with the
Crusaders, Armenians never espoused their hatred of Islam.
As a result of past tribulations they had learned not to
take sides in political conflicts and remained neutral.
Consequently, they were the only community that had remained
in its own quarter without being dislodged or molested
during the upheavals of the previous three hundred years .
In
1438, Sultan Chaqmaq issued a special decree in favor of the
Armenians, forbidding the emir of Jerusalem to harass them
with unnecessary taxation and instructed that an inscription
to this effect be engraved at the entrance of St James
Convent. Today, as the visitor enters the main gate of St.
James Convent, on the back wall behind an ornate stone
fountain there is an elaborately carved inscription in
Arabic letters, which loosely translated warns all
intruders:
"This
decree from Our Lord Sultan and King Al-Daher Abu Sayid
Muhammad , cursed be all those and their sons through
generations and may the Almighty Allah curse whosoever
causes harm or inflicts an injustice of any kind upon this
holy place. Abu Kheyer Razan hereby guarantees this to the
Armenian Convent of Jerusalem. In the year of Muhammad 854"
(1438 A.D.)
Like
most Oriental cities, Jerusalem was divided into distinct
neighborhoods or quarters. The inhabitants of Jerusalem
tended to live in separate districts according to their
religion and ethnic origin. The Armenians and the Maghribis
(Westerners) lived together in one quarter in the
southwestern corner. Muslims from various countries in Asia
( including Iranians, Afghanis and Indians) lived next to
the Haram or the Mosque of Omar in the northwest corner. The
relatively small group of Jews lived in the southeastern
corner. However, there was no strict rule for segregation.
There were neighborhoods where Muslims, Jews and Christians
lived side by side. Shops, trades and businesses were
conducted without distinction between the various religious
and ethnic groups.
ottoman
Period
Sultan
al-Ashraf Aqnouk al-Ghuri (1513-1516) was the last Memluk
ruler. In a crucial battle outside Cairo in 1515, he was
defeated by Sultan Selim I of the ottoman dynasty
effectively bringing the end of 250 years of Memluk rule. In
December 1516, Sultan Selim arrived outside Jerusalem. The
leaders of the Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities
welcomed him with opened arms. Hence, there was no bloodshed
nor forceful conquest. In reality, the people of Jerusalem
were greatly relieved to see the Turks and gladly handed the
sultan the keys to the city.. Being a pious man , it is said
that upon seeing the El-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the
Rock, Selim jumped off his horse, got on his knees and
shouted "Thank be to God! I am the possessor of the
sanctuary of the first Qiblah (House of God) !".
The
subsequent history of the Holy Places in Jerusalem and its
environs has been a long story of bitter animosity and
contention among rival Christian churches, as well as the
cause of international conflicts. As one of the principal
custodians of the dominical sites, the Armenian Church was
frequently victimized by these developments. The stronger
and continuous challenge to the Armenians and their holdings
in the Holy Land came from the Greeks who continuously
attempted to ignore and bypass the charters issued in march
1517, to the Armenian and Greek Patriarchs by Sultan Selim I
on the basis of ancient edicts issued by the previous Arab
sultans who effectively had sanctioned a status quo in the
holy Land. Sultan Selim's edict guaranteed the integrity of
the age-old Armenian possessions within and outside
Jerusalem, as well as those of their dependent communities.
The edict also prohibited members of imperial families,
government officials and other communities from disturbing
the ecclesiastical rites of the Armenians as well as those
of their dependent communities; it prohibited the
molestation of Armenian monasteries , sanctuaries and other
possessions.
The
ottomans, as the westerners call them, were originally
Seljuk turkish
tribes out of the steppes of central Asia,
who migrated west to Asia Minor following the armies of Jenghis Khan. Initially they dominated parts of Anatolia.
Osman I (or Uthman Ghazi, 1258-1326) overthrew the Seljuk
sultan and began the conquest of the rest of Asia Minor. He
is considered being the founder of the Osmanli, hence
ottoman, empire. By the time Sultan Selim entered Jerusalem
the ottoman empire was establish throughout the entire
fertile crescent , Egypt, Persia and parts of Europe. After
the capture of Constantinople from the Byzantines in 1453,
the empire extended to the Balkans.
At
first the ottomans brought law and order to the city of
Jerusalem. In spite of their Islamic beliefs they were quite
tolerant of Christians and Jews. However, as a result of
their battles in the conquest of Europe they distrusted the
Latins who in turn hated them. This situation benefitted
both the Greeks and the Armenians since they were already
well known to the Turks and were classified as official "Millet"(nations)
within the vast ottoman Empire. Of course the existence of
Greek and Armenian Patriarchates in Istanbul
(Constantinople) was of great help to both nations.
The
status of Jerusalem improved dramatically during the reign
of Sultan Suleiman The Magnificent (1520-1566). Jerusalem
was the chief beneficiary of a cultural awakening. Between
1536 and 1541, he rebuilt the walls around the city which
stand to this day . He also undertook the construction of
many buildings that benefitted all the communities in the
city. He promulgated laws and administrative procedures that
lasted 400 years . Since the entire Asia Minor was under one
rule pilgrims began visiting the Holy Places in large
numbers. Armenians of all classes made their pilgrimage to
the Holy Land through land and sea. The Convent of St
Nicholas in Jaffa, the seaport, was the starting point for
the seafarers who came from Anatolia and points in Europe.
These pilgrims brought gifts and riches to enhance the
status of the Armenian Church. Some settled to form a
sizable community which over the years became the Armenian
Quarter as we know it today.
After
the death of Suleiman in 1566, weaker sultans began to
neglect Jerusalem. They assigned minor functionaries to
govern the city which eventually ended up being governed by
local Arab families. The Greek Orthodox patriarchs were well
placed in Istanbul to pull strings in the royal court
bribing the sultans and high level functionaries.
Corruption, graft and intrigue were encouraged by the
sultans as a means of keeping the adversaries off balance,
and the ownership of the Holy Places changed hands according
to who gave the most bribe. By the middle of the nineteenth
century total chaos prevailed. There were daily fights among
the followers of the "Man of Peace" for the control and
maintenance of the Holy Places. Competition was so fierce
and ruthless between the Greeks and the Latins, it compelled
European and Russian governments to interfere in the
internal affairs of the ottoman
empire. It may sound quite
incongruous for our time, the bitter feuding between the
Greeks and the Latins led to a full-scale war between the
European powers. In 1847, a very serious brawl took place
between the Greek and Latin priests which led to bloodshed
amid accusations over the disappearance of a silver star
belonging to the Latins in the Church of Nativity in
Bethlehem. This led to a diplomatic clash between France and
Russia, the so-called "protectors " of the two churches.
This quarrel gave Britain and France the excuse to start the
Crimean war in 1854, in which the turkish
sultan Abdul Majid
fought the Russians on the side of the allies. The Russians
were defeated.
In
February 1852, Abdul Majid issued his famous Firman (edict)
on the status of the Holy Places. It became the official
declaration of Status Quo which established and regulated
all religions in the Holy Places and froze in place the
rights and privileges of the parties as they stood at that
time. The document also promulgated that these rights cannot
be amended or modified in any way shape or form . The main
beneficiaries of this edict turned out to be the Greek
Church. The Status Quo was confirmed and recognized by the
Paris Convention in 1856, the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, the
Versailles Peace Treaty in 1919 and the Palestine
Order-in-Council in 1922, after the defeat of the ottoman
s
in World War I.. This last council added the following
statement. "It is understood that no alterations can be made
in the Status Quo of the Holy Places". Since 1967, the
Israeli government has given partial acceptance to the
Status Quo as it pertains to the Christian sites, reserving
their right to those holy places they consider historically
and traditionally belonging to the Jewish people.
The
reader may ask, "How did the Armenians come through all
these struggles?". History tells us that for a small nation,
Armenians have done quite well. Deserved credit must be
given to the leaders of the Armenian Church namely, the
Patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem backed by certain
strong-willed Catholicoi in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries .It is demonstrated by the fact that the Status
Quo recognized the Armenian Church as one of three principal
custodians of the Holy Places on equal standing with the
Latin and Greek churches. No other denomination has standing
within this scheme.
In all
matters of principle relating to the Status Quo in the
Christian Holy Places,. only the three major rites - Greeks,
Armenians and Latins were taken into exclusive
consideration. The three Patriarchs had the right to enter
the Holy Sepulcher in formal procession. They alone had the
right to ask that its entrance be opened by the Muslim door
keeper, a descendant of the original family to whom the task
was given in the nineteenth century.
End of ottoman
Rule
The
end of ottoman
(Osmanly) rule came inauspiciously in the
first decade of the twentieth century. The last ottoman
ruler, Sultan Abdul-Hamid was deposed by the turkish
army in
Macedonia led by a dissident group called the Young Turks
who proceeded to establish a constitutional government on
July 24,1908. Thus, the rule of ottoman sultans, which
started with the capture of Constantinople in 1453, and
ended ignominiously in the summer of 1908, was also the
beginning of the end for turkish
supremacy over the
countries in southern Europe (the Balkans), northern Africa
and the Fertile Crescent. On January 23, 1913, a coup led by
turkish
ultranationalists gave dictatorial powers to a small
group led by the infamous triumvirate of Enver pasha,
minister of War, Talaat pasha, minister of Interior and
Jamal Pasha, minister-governor of Constantinople. Ignoring
from the start the provisions of the turkish
Constitution
which gave certain rights to all segments of society, they
ruthlessly suppressed all opposition.
In the
fall of 1914, the turkish leaders were persuaded by the
Germans to join them and their allies in the war against
Britain, France and Russia. Atrocities toward the Greek and
Armenian populations had already begun. Between 1915 and
1918 they intensified their efforts resulting in the tragic
genocide of the Armenians, a catastrophe presaging another
future tragic event that would have a profound impact on the
history of the Holy Land- the persecution and destruction of
the Jewish people by Nazi Germany.
As a
result of territorial losses in the Balkan wars of
1908-1912, and the declaration of independence by Albania,
the turkish government had to contend with the relocation in
western Armenia, of its more than 500,000 displaced Muslims
who were obviously anti-Christian, the idea of relocation
worried Armenian leaders, since it meant the dislocation of
Armenians in certain areas of Turkey. In order to make room
for these refugees, the official turkish policy was to
vacate certain Armenian villages. The code word they used
was "deportation". In reality, their undeclared objective
was to establish a pan-turkish hegemony, by eliminating all
non-Turks or to Turkisize all minorities and bring together
all the Muslim people from Transcaucasia, Iran and Central
Asia into one turkish empire. In particular, they would
eliminate with one stroke " The Armenian Question"and
consequently, it was the undeclared objective of the
infamous trio to exterminate the Armenians in Turkey with
the help of the Germans who were anxious to build the
Berlin-Baghdad railroad.
The
genocide of the Armenians effectively started on the night
of April 24, 1915, a date that has gone in infamy , and is
remembered by Armenians throughout the world to this day.
After rounding up and executing more than two hundred
Armenian intellectual, religious and political leaders in
the country, the Turks proceeded to implement the systematic
extermination of the Armenian population in major cities and
villages under the pretext of "deportation" just as it
turned out to be the case in Nazi Germany during World War
II.
In
February 1915, Armenian soldiers had already been disarmed
and relegated to work details, and many young men were
shanghaied in the turkish army and forced to perform
humiliating menial jobs and treated as prisoners along with
other minorities (Greeks and Jews in particular). Explicit
orders were given to all the governors and military
commanders of the Armenian provinces to remove the Armenians
by force from their ancestral homes. The ethnic cleansing
was systematic and well planned. They assembled all the
able-bodied men they could find in the towns and villages,
took them out of town and shot them dead. The remaining
helpless old men, women and children were driven out of
their homes and herded into caravans without food and water.
Those who fell along the wayside were shot by the turkish
soldiers and Kurdish irregulars. Some were pushed into
rivers and those who did not drown were shot by the
soldiers. Those surviving these atrocities were driven
toward the southern desert of Turkey. On the way, turkish,
kurdish and Arab families snatched away the very young
children to make them members of their families, young women
or teenage girls were either raped or taken to become wives
and concubines, or house maids to rich Turks . Finally,
those arriving in the desert of Deir- Zor were shot and left
to die in the hot sun in freshly dug pits. Thus, more than
one and a half million Armenians were mercilessly
exterminated. Fortunately, another million succeeded in
escaping the first major genocide of the twentieth century.
In later years, Hitler is known to have said "Who remembers
the Armenians? " as he was "deporting" and exterminating the
Jews.
It is
an irony of history that the Armenian population in
Jerusalem survived the genocide. At the time, Jerusalem was
the headquarters of the VIII Corps of the turkish Seventh
Army commanded by Jemal Pasha, assigned to defend Palestine
against a possible attack by the British in Egypt. The port
city of Gaza in the south was fortified for this purpose
leaving a relatively small garrison in and around the Old
City of Jerusalem ( a couple of thousand troops in all). The
Armenian population of Jerusalem called then and now in
Armenian, "Kaghakatsi" (City folk or locals as against "Kaghtagan"-refugees)
were not molested or massacred like their brothers and
sisters in Turkey proper. However, those working for the
city government were removed from their positions. With the
British threatening from Egypt, the understaffed Turks were
suspicious of all minorities, Jews, Arabs, Greeks and
Armenians alike . They began forcibly conscripting young men
from the city and sending them to Anatolia to do menial
work. Some young men escaped. Jews in the Jewish Quarter hid
in synagogues and with friends, Arabs hid in the Mosque of
Omar while Armenians took refuge inside the safe confines of
St. James Convent.
Because of its sacred status, the Turks were reluctant to
commit atrocities within the Old City. The average
citizenry, including Armenians went about their business,
and family life continued as usual. It is believed that one
important factor in this situation was attributable to the
Arab leadership in Jerusalem . Although the governor of
Palestine was a Turk generally residing in Damascus, the
city was actually run by Arab functionaries, including the
Mayor and his deputies. At this time the mayor of Jerusalem
was Hussien Selim Al-Husseini, a member of three ruling Arab
families who over the past hundreds of years had
administered the affairs of the city and its associated
institutions.
Historically, the Arabic speaking local Armenians had close
ties with their Arab neighbors who prevented any incursion
against their age-old neighbors. Further, the Turks were
quite aware that as a religious institution, the St James
Monastery was protected by the edicts of Arab as well as
turkish
Sultans. Consequently, the St James Brotherhood was
able to open its doors to not only young Armenian deserters
from the turkish army but also provided shelter and food to
refugees from the turkish massacres. This activity was
unprecedented since in the past the secular public was not
permitted to take indefinite residence within the confines
of the monastery. Although this decision was quite
praiseworthy in its face, it created an endemic situation
with serious repercussions in the future status of the St
James Monastery which will be discussed later .
The
ottoman empire spawned the most corrupt rulers of the Holy
Land. The only positive legacy they left was the
establishment and enforcement of the Status Quo in the Holy
Places,. which contributed to an equitable distribution of
rights and the potential for balanced harmony among the
Christian communities.
The British Are Coming
By 1916,
the British government had amassed a large military force in
Egypt. Prime Minister Lloyd George and his cabinet decided
that they needed some kind of spectacular victory in the
Middle East that would distract attention from the
stalemated trench wars in France. They had already faced the
Turks in Gallipoli with disastrous results and were about to
start a campaign in Mesopotamia.
The
British Egyptian Expeditionary Force consisted of several
divisions from England, France, Australia, New Zealand and
India. They were supplemented by an Armenian volunteer
brigade called the Armenian Legion as well as the Jewish
Brigade, among others. The commander of the forces, General
Murray, was replaced in the summer by General Edward Allemby
who was told by the prime minister to capture Jerusalem as a
Christmas present to the British people.
Allemby crossed into the Sinai Peninsula along the
Mediterranean coast and prepared to capture the towns of
Beersheba and Gaza at the southern end of Palestine. On
October 30,1917, Beersheba was taken and on November 7,
1917, against strong turkish
resistance, Gaza fell to the
expeditionary forces leaving open the road to Jerusalem as
the turkish
army retreated to the north.
On
November 21, 1917, Allemby's forces took positions in the
hills in sight of the city of Jerusalem, and between
December 4 and 8, the last attack was launched against the
Turks deployed in the hills surrounding Jerusalem Many
turkish
soldiers were killed and the rest retreated toward
Jericho. By nightfall on December 8, the panicky Turks
abandoned the city for good after some looting. Thus, The
turkish
rule of Jerusalem lasting almost four hundred years
(1516-1917) came to a humiliating end. The day before,
turkish
police succeeded in forcing some Greeks and
Armenians (about 300 ) to abandon the city marching them on
foot toward Jericho facing severe hardships on their was to
Damascus. However, they did not have time to drive the rest
of the population from the city, thus saving them form an
uncertain fate.
In the
morning of December 9,1917, the Arab Mayor of Jerusalem,
Hussein Efendi Al-Husseini, the highest official left in
Jerusalem, carrying a makeshift white flag made out of a
large sheet borrowed from an American missionary and bearing
the symbolic keys to the city, set out to surrender the city
to the British forces bivouacked a short distance away. He
was accompanied by a group of Christian priests, Muslim
Imams, Jewish rabbis and some children. It seems that the
British soldiers were still sleeping in their tents. At some
distance from the northwestern entrance to the Old City they
met two unsuspecting British soldiers who were out looking
for water. Privates H.E. Church and R.W.J. Andrewes did not
know what to do with this delegation. A typically British
shuffle up the chain of command ensued. After several hours,
the delegation was finally met by a brigadier-general who
accompanied them back to the city and told them to wait for
Major General Shea to accept the surrender of the City
officially in the name of the commander-in-chief, Allemby.
On
December 11, 1917, following precise instructions laid out
three weeks earlier by London, General Allemby entered
Jerusalem for the formal ceremony of surrender. Out of
deference to the "Holy City" he entered the city on foot
through the Jaffa Gate . In spite of the fact that the
turkish
forces were positioned about four miles north of the
city on the road to Ramallah and on the Mount of Olives to
the east preparing to counter attack, the population of the
city was celebrating their liberation with great enthusiasm.
Fortunately, the turkish
offensive was repulsed the next day
forcing them to retreat further north.
For
the first time since the Crusaders arrived in Jerusalem in
1099, Christmas was celebrated under the rule of a Christian
power. Even though the Holy City was no longer within range
of its guns, the turkish
army was not driven out of
Palestine until September 1918, almost a year after the
liberation of Jerusalem.
On
December 30, 1918, the turkish
government signed an
armistice, ending in defeat and ignominy and effectively
obliterating an empire that started in 1453 with the conquer
of Byzantine Constantinople 563 years before.
On
December 28, 1918, British military rule was formally
declared in Palestine. On July 22, 1922, with the approval
of the Council of League of Nations, the British mandate for
Palestine began. When on May 15, 1948, the last British
soldier left on a ship from Haifa, 31 years of British
presence in Palestine ended inauspiciously.
In the
Armenian cemetery, outside the southern wall of the Old City
and adjacent to the St. Savior Armenian Convent, there
stands a stone monument in memory of fallen members of the
Armenian Legion. Buried in these sacred grounds are some
(23) of the men who gave their lives for the liberation of
the Holy Land from the ottoman
s. Each April 24, led by the
Patriarch of Jerusalem and accompanied by members of the St.
James Brotherhood, Armenians gather around this monument in
solemn commemoration of the fallen heroes ( about 25) whose
names are engraved on the monument. They also remember and
pray for the victims of the turkish
genocide.
Legacy Of British Rule
The
British rule in Palestine can be characterized as one of
sustained deviousness on the part of its leaders and a
repudiation of their public image as the saviors and
do-gooders of the Holy Land. Even before the conquest of
Palestine the government in London was instructing its
commanders in the field to make contradictory promises
designed to attain their objectives. The subsequent
two-faced approach to governing during the British mandate,
spawned the pattern of contradictory decisions that set the
pattern of unrest and violence among both Jews and Arabs,
that was to become the curse of the Holy Land lasting to
this day, eighty years after their first entrance in
Jerusalem.
While
their armies in the field had barely begun the invasion of
Palestine, the government in London was sowing the seeds of
contradictory decisions. In March 1915, Herbert Samuel, a
member of the British Liberal Government and a Jew, proposed
the establishment of a British protectorate over Palestine
into which Jews from all over the world could settle. It was
supported by other members of the government. In October
1915, as they were preparing to drive the Turks out of
Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula, British functionaries
in the field were promising the Arabs four cities ,
Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo in Syria, to be part of
their autonomous territories in return for their help in
vanquishing the Turks. Instead, at the end of the war in
1918, Syria was placed under French mandate. At the same
time the British kept to themselves their intention to
occupy all lands west of the of the Jordan river, including
Jerusalem which would become the center piece of British
controlled territory. As the war against the Turks in
Mesopotamia progressed with the help of Arab tribes, the
British government repeatedly broke faith and reneged or
modified their promises to the Arabs.
The
proposal for a home for the Jews in Palestine was revived on
November 9,1917. Foreign Secretary Arthur J. Balfour, with
the approval of the British cabinet headed by Prime Minister
Lloyd George, made public a letter sent to Lord Rotschild a
week earlier, in which Balfour promised to use British
influence to establish a "National Home in Palestine " for
the Jews. Upon reading this letter in public. Herbert Samuel
in a speech stressed that there must be "Full, just
recognition of the Arabs who constitute a majority of the
population of that country" adding that at the same time
they must demonstrate "a reverent respect for the Christian
and Muslim Holy Places which in all eventualities should
always remain in the control and charge of the
representatives of those faiths."
The
true intentions of the British government came into light
when on February 27, 1920, the military officer
administering the government of Palestine, Major General
Louis Bols, issued a proclamation that the British
Government intended to carry out the promise of the Balfour
Declaration. This act triggered serious riots by the Arab
population of Jerusalem and elsewhere in the country. It was
the beginning of continuous unrest, rioting, and guerilla
warfare that plagued the Holy Land throughout British rule.
The
arrival of the British in Jerusalem in December 1917, was
met with great jubilation and relief by every segment of the
population including the Armenians. The fear of persecution
by the ottoman
s had dissipated forever. Because of their
apparent humanitarian approach, the British were unlike any
other conqueror in the tortured history of Jerusalem.
Working with the American red Cross, they began providing
food and shelter to more than seven thousand refugees,
Armenians, Syrians, Latins, Greek Orthodox, Protestants,
Jews and Muslims. Several hundred Armenian refugees were
settled by the red Cross in one of the most neglected and
run-down areas in the Old City called the Cotton Market. At
the same time, the St. James Brotherhood opened its doors
further providing additional shelter to the Armenian
refugees inside the walls of the convent.
Since
at the time the throne of the Armenian Patriarchate was
vacant, the British military rulers in Egypt invited
Archbishop Torkom Koushagian, then prelate of the Armenian
church in Egypt, to visit Jerusalem and preside over the
Easter celebrations to be conducted under Christian rule for
the first time since the Crusaders. This move turned out to
be quite beneficial for the Armenians. It helped ensure that
their rights and privileges in the Holy Places were
reaffirmed .
In
March 1918, General Storrs, the military governor of
Jerusalem, called a meeting of all the community leaders in
Jerusalem , Moslem, Christian, Jewish Orthodox, and the
local Arab government dignitaries. The purpose of this
meeting was to introduce a newcomer from England, Chaim
Weizmann, Chairman of the newly established Jewish Zionist
Commission . Also present was Archbishop Torkom Koushagian.
Weizmann attempted to allay the fears of the attendees by
telling them that the aim of the Zionists was not to
establish their power over the other communities , but to
work together for a common goal of self-determination. This
message was received with mixed feelings by all present.
Future contacts with members of the Zionist Commission made
the Arabs wary of their intentions.
As
acting Patriarch, the presence of Archbishop Koushagian in
Jerusalem proved to be crucial to the future well-being of
the Armenian church. His strong and determined
representation of the rights and privileges of the Armenian
church in the face of blatant attempts by the Greek Orthodox
church to invalidate the ottoman
edict of Status Quo and
usurp some of the Holy Sites owned by the Armenians ,
ensured that the British recognized and affirmed these
rights. After the defeat of Germany ending World War I, the
Armenian National Delegation which included Archbishop
Yeghishe Tourian, the near future Patriarch of Jerusalem,
lobbied the participants of the Versailles Treaty Conference
in 1919 to ensure recognition and acceptance of the ottoman
Status Quo, which they did. In 1922, the Palestine Order in
Council again reaffirmed the Status Quo, adding: "It is well
understood that no alteration can be made on the Status Quo
of the Holy Places."
In
spite of the continued conflict and violence which started
in 1921 throughout the British Mandate, the Armenian
community in the Holy Land enjoyed a remarkable period of
rejuvenation and growth socially, culturally, and
religiously under the benevolent, open-minded, and
progressive rule of successive British governors. Armenians
continued their traditional way of living uninvolved in the
struggles around them, retaining their age-old custom of
apolitical behavior by embracing an even-handed neutrality,
and under the guidance of the Patriarchate did not
participate in the political conflict engulfing the Arab and
Jewish communities. Although they were not considered
combatants , on certain occasions some became innocent
victims of violence from both sides.
The
duplicity of the British rulers with respect to the status
of the Jews and Arabs in Palestine was root-cause of the
conflict that reached its crescendo in the latter part of
the 1940s. In May 1921, Arabs began to riot against the
continuing British policy of allowing the massive
immigration of Jews into Palestine. On the other hand,
extremist Jewish groups began a campaign of terror against
both the British and the Arabs culminating in the
indiscriminate killing of British soldiers, Arab as well as
Jewish innocent civilians. By the spring of 1939, Jewish
terrorists were killing British soldiers in protest of
British refusal to allow Jewish refugees escaping Nazi
Germany to land into Palestine. Those caught were sent to
internment camps in Cyprus.
During
World War II (September 1939-August 1945), terrorist
activities from both sides were somewhat curtailed. However,
after the unconditional surrender of Japan to the United
States (August 28, 1945), the violence resumed with a
vengeance. The most devastating terrorist attack took place
on July 22,1946. When members of Irgun Zvi Leumi, an
extremist Jewish group which included two future prime
ministers of Israel, Menachem Begin and Itzhak Shamir,
disguised as Arabs placed explosive charges in milk churns
into the hall outside the Regence Cafe in the basement of
the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, where the British
Military Headquarters and other government offices occupied
the third through the fifth floors. At 12:37, the explosives
went off . Above the cafe, the entire south wing of the
hotel , all five floors containing twenty fives rooms
collapsed. Ninety two people were killed, buried helplessly
under the rubble. Among the dead were military and civilian
personnel, soldiers, clerks, typists, janitors, messengers,
and drivers. Four Armenians were also victims; three female
secretaries and a driver, Garabed Paraghanian.
Faced
with the increased violence and indiscriminate killings,
Armenians began to take steps to ensure their neutrality.
The men began wearing Russian style fur caps and grew
moustaches to distinguish them from the Jewish men who
normally wore fedoras, and from the Arab men, dressed in
their traditional red and white checkered Bedouin headgear.
The women were ever so careful not to expose themselves to
unnecessary dangers by abstaining from going to movies at
night or go shopping in Jewish areas without escort. They
generally stayed inside their own neighborhoods.
There
is an ironic element in the inconsistent style of governing
by the British in Palestine in that, in spite of the ongoing
struggles and violence they caused, they also introduced a
Western influence on all the divergent segments of society.
Like the disciplined missionaries they were, they encouraged
the awakening and development of educational and cultural
endeavors in each and every community in the country without
distinction to religious and ethnic background. Ethnic and
parochial schools and institutions of higher education,
athletic clubs, musical and literary societies were
established and maintained with professional efficiency.
Although the intellectual and literary awakening which had
begun in the middle of the nineteenth century in Western
Armenia was given a mortal blow by the Turks with the murder
of more than two hundred prominent creative leaders,
Armenians attempted to regain the impetus of rebuilding
their cultural base in Jerusalem where under the protective
umbrella of British rule they could blossom and progress in
freedom. The principal motivator of this movement was
Archbishop Yeghishe Tourian, an experienced educator, man of
letters, and dean of the seminary of Armash (1890-1914) in
Western Armenia. In 1921 he was elected Patriarch of
Jerusalem. A lifelong advocate of education, he set out to
bring together the intellectuals who survived the genocide.
Immediately after his elevation to the See, he initiated the
construction of the first co-educational institution in
Jerusalem, a four-story stone building adjacent to the
theological seminary inside the walls of the St. James
Convent. In the summer of 1929, the completed school
building was dedicated and named Soorp Tarkmantchats School
(Holy Translators) and opened in time for the start of the
scholastic year in September. Also in 1929, the construction
of the massive Gulbenkian Library named after its
benefactor, millionaire oil man Calouste Gulbenkian was
completed and opened for public use .
The
theological seminary was reorganized, its curriculum
modernized and the faculty staffed with prominent teachers
fortunate to survive the genocide. The student body of the
seminary was increased by recruiting young men orphaned in
the turkish
massacres as well as scholastically qualified
boys from countries in the Middle East. The printing press
and other departments in the Patriarchate were refurbished
and strengthened. A spirit of enthusiasm and rejuvenated
energy emanated from every sector of Armenian society.
After
the passing of Patriarch Tourian on April 27, 1930, he was
succeeded by Archbishop Torkom Koushagian who was elevated
to the throne on December 1, 1931. Not being a stranger to
Jerusalem, Koushagian, a graduate, subsequent teacher and
assistant dean of Armash seminary, followed in the footsteps
of his venerated mentor and friend. He continued with
enthusiasm the constructive work of his predecessor
emphasizing all aspects of education and intellectual
enlightenment. As an experienced and highly capable
administrator with international contacts ( he was fluent in
four languages, Armenian, French, English and turkish
), he
continued to improve the status of the Armenian church in
the Holy Land as well as ensure that the financial base of
the Patriarchate remained strong and viable.
Patriarchs Tourian and Koushagian are venerated to this day
as two of the most prominent men in the history of the
Armenian presence in the Holy Land along with a handful of
their predecessors. In utilizing their dynamic personalities
and charm, they established a strong foundation for future
generations. Because of their efforts, the Armenian
community in Jerusalem would thrive and grow producing
thousands of educated and professional men and women who to
this day are strong contributors to Armenian communities in
every corner of the world. Between 1921 and 1948, in spite
of the mortal struggles going on around them, the number of
Armenians in the Holy land grew to about 16,000.They were
the object of envy in other communities in the Middle East.
Came the Partition
On
April 2, 1947, the British government, weary of the chaotic
situation in Palestine and tired of the casualties inflicted
upon his majesty's subjects by both the Arabs and Jews,
informed the United nations in NewYork that it had decided
to give up the mandate for Palestine. The Palestine
Commission formed soon after, published its report on August
31, 1947, offering its recommendations. On November 29,
1947, the united Nations Assembly resolved to partition
Palestine according to the plan presented by the Palestine
Commission, to take effect on September 1, 1948. However,
the British government announced that it would leave
Palestine on May 15, 1948.
This
decision triggered greater violence in Palestine. For the
next four months, while the bulk of the British forces were
confined to the safety of their barracks and the Palestine
Police effectively powerless, the warring parties began
jockeying for positions, each side attempting to capture and
hold key locations in anticipation of Partition Day. The
killing and bombing which caused the displacement of people
from their ancestral homes intensified while each side was
proceeding to consolidate and secure its respective
territories based on the majority it enjoyed in any given
area. A genuine ethnic cleansing had begun. Mixed
neighborhoods were hit hardest with noncombatants, such as
Greeks, Armenians, European embassy people and foreign
nationals becoming victims of mass expulsion and terror.
Many well-to-do Armenians living in the outskirts of the
Jerusalem were forced to abandon their homes and walk away,
some with only their shirts on their backs. They found
refuge in the Armenian Quarter and the St. James Convent
whence they and their parents came many years before as
refugees of the Turhish massacres.
By
March 1948, while the British controlled the main highways
and imposed curfews all over the countryside and with
marauding armed Arab and Jewish combatants filtering through
the hills in daily raids against each other, it became
difficult for the neutral population to travel between
cities or leave the country at the risk of being shot or
blown up.
At
4:40 P.M., on Friday May 14, 1948, Ben Gurion, Chairman of
the Jewish Agency, read a declaration of independence
proclaiming the establishment of a Jewish State to come into
being at midnight the same day. The new country would be
called "Israel ". Although the British Mandate was scheduled
to end at midnight on Saturday, May 15, 1948, Ben Gurion and
his associates decided it would be prudent to declare
independence on Friday, the 14th, out of deference to the
Jewish Sabbath and also to avoid the wrath of the religious
Orthodox Jews.
On the
morning of May 15, 1948, the High Commissioner of Palestine,
General Sir Alan Cunningham, accepted the lowered British
union flag outside the government house from a small
contingent of fifty British soldiers and flew to the port of
Haifa followed by the same contingent of his troops. At the
stroke of midnight that same day, a ship carrying the
Commissioner and the remnants of British officials and the
military, left Haifa harbor on its way to England,
officially ending thirty one years of British presence in
the Holy Land.
At
midnight the previous day ( May 14) King Abdallah of
Transjordan, standing on the Allemby bridge, shot a pistol
in the air thus ordering the troops of the Arab Legion to
cross into Palestine, and by nightfall the next day they
were poised at the outskirts of Jerusalem. At the end of the
two-week battle that followed, the Arab legion took control
of the Old City trapping the residents of Jewish Quarter.
The hospital in which many Jewish wounded were being treated
caught fire. With the help of soldiers from the Arab legion,
the Armenian Patriarchate located next to the Jewish
Quarter, provided shelter to the wounded from the burning
hospital until a truce was called to evacuate them several
days later. The humanitarian act performed by the soldiers
of the Arab Legion surprised the Jewish leadership. It was
act that could not be forgotten.
After
the cease-fire in November 1948, and the establishment of
the "Green Line" extending north-south cut Jerusalem in
half. Armenians were caught in the middle. Most had lost
their homes in the new city and they had to find lodgings in
the Old City . The St. James Convent was already filled
beyond its capacity and most had lost their jobs or
businesses. Eventually, the majority found passage to Amman
Jordan, thence to other Arab countries in the Middle East.
Those with means and connections were able to migrate to
Armenia, the United States, South America, England and
Europe. Those who remained suffered deprivation and
casualties since both the Armenian Quarter and the St. James
Convent were in the middle of the battle zone. At times,
mortar shells fell over some buildings causing extensive
damage to the point that some had to be abandoned. Since
they had no access to their cemetery on Mount Zion outside
the Old City walls, they had to bury their dead in the
garden area behind the seminary.
It is
said that Patriarch Guregh Israelian (1944-1949) died of a
broken heart, grieving over the sorry state his beloved
people and their institutions suffered. He was buried in the
courtyard at the entrance of St. James Cathedral. The six
day war of 1967 also caused great damage to several
buildings in the residential sections of the convent. In
particular, the seminary building and the priest's quarters
called Baghchatagh. Both had to be evacuated and abandoned.
In effect, the Patriarchate was also cut off from its
outlying income properties and was deprived of necessary
funds to sustain its operations and to feed its refugees.
As
early as the spring of 1948, the Arab/Israeli conflict
created a massive exodus of Armenians who escaped the
ravages of war and the destruction of their way of life.
Armenians living in Jaffa, Haifa, Nazaret, Gaza and other
locations in Palestine suffered deprivation, loss of their
businesses and homes . They had to abandon their schools and
churches to an uncertain future, never to return. As of this
writing, the number of Armenians residing in Israel is
slightly over two thousand, most living in Jerusalem in and
around the Armenian Quarter in the Old City.
Some Closing Comments
The
acquisition and maintenance of the Holy Sites has not been
easy for the Armenians. History is replete with intrigue,
corruption and sometimes outright banditry, a process in
which Armenians had to "play the game." In the years
following the edict of Status Quo, the relationship between
the principal rites has not been cordial or cooperative.
There have been incursions, scheming and usurpation by all
parties where arbitration became necessary. Fortunately,
